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Ethics Tutorial

1. One of the areas of concern today is ethics—or morality. The great philosopher Aristotle used ethics in two ways: first, as a standard of behavior (code of ethics) and, second, as an area of study exploring the nature of morality: what is good? What is not good? Why do we think it is good? Why do we think it is not good?  This is the philosophical or theoretical use of the word ethics. It is this use of ethics that forms a major area of concern in many areas of society today—especially in business and government. It is important to realize that Professional Ethics is rooted in Ethical Theory and that Practical Ethics is rooted in Theoretical Ethics. In other words, there are ethical reasons which explain why we do what we do in our decision making and our actions.
Check Your Understanding
a. Ethics can refer to both a code of ethics and also an area of philosophy dealing with morality. ____ True ____ False
b. Ethics is a major area of concern in society today. ____ True ____ False
c. To understand Professional Ethics, it is not necessary to understand Ethical Theory. ____ True ____ False

2. Philosophers have generally been divided into two camps: the Rationalists and the Empiricists.  Rationalists believe that our mental knowledge establishes the reality of life. We cannot trust our sense—we must rely upon that which we mentally and rationally know to be the truth.  To support their position, they would point to everything that exists which is not subject to the senses: love, freedom, goodness, etc. Plato was one of the first philosophers to rely upon the power of the mind; however, Rene DesCartes, a Frenchman, is usually associated with modern Rationalism.
Empiricists believe that we learn and know the truth based upon our senses. We are born with no innate knowledge and must learn through scientific observation. Once we know the world in which we live, we provide labels.  We may talk about things as if they were real, but we do not know they exist unless we can sense them—empirically.  Aristotle was one of the first philosophers to rely upon the senses for knowledge about our world. He could be said to be the first Empiricist although scientific observation became more prevalent in the West during the 17th century.
From these two philosophical positions, Rationalists and Empiricists, there developed different ethical theories.  The Rationalists believed in the word of Authority to tell what should or should not be done.  In general, the Authority was the Church.  This will lead to an Absolutist approach to ethics. The Empiricists believed that, generally, what worked best (however that is defined) would determine the good and the bad.  (These two approaches will be discussed later.)
These two positions were reconciled by Immanuel Kant who developed the Categorical Imperative. Immanuel Kant was an 18th century German philosopher. He said, “that is good which can be done by all.” That is the Categorical Imperative. Needless to say, the Categorical Imperative is not the norm in American culture!  Just because I speed down the freeway doesn’t mean you can speed, also!
Check Your Understanding
a. Throughout history, philosophers have been divided into the Mentalists and the Empiricists. ____ True ____ False
b. Rationalists rely upon the mind for knowledge about the world.  ____ True ____ False
c. Empiricists rely upon the senses for knowledge about the world.  ____ True ____ False

3. American culture has a strong foundation in Empirical philosophy. At the same time, religion (which is Rationalist in nature) strongly influences many people in our culture.
So, we can talk about two general approaches to ethics: absolutist and relativist. It is extremely important, especially in the United States, to understand how these two approaches interact because, in the United States, both approaches are seen in everyday actions and decision-making.
The absolutist believes that there are moral laws that apply to everyone in every place. These moral laws are unchangeable. In addition, it is important to enlighten as many people as possible to these moral laws so that all peoples and cultures can be good. This is the reasoning behind much of the missionary activity that has taken place over the centuries in the world and behind the drive to extend Western civilization to every part of the globe. Westerners believe that our morality is the morality for all people in all places.
The relativist believes that the norms for good and bad are set by the culture and peoples who live in them.  Therefore, one culture cannot judge another culture against its own norms; one person cannot judge another person because the second person may have a different set of norms by which he or she makes decisions.
Because the United States is pluralistic (having many different religions) and also multi-cultural (having people from many cultures living here), it is imperative to realize that we all act according to different sets of norms.  However, because we are a single society, we do have a set of social norms or ethics, generally based upon the Ten Commandments and highlighted in the Bill of Rights and our Constitution.  Societal ethics are defined by our legal system. As a society, even though we differ in our ethical approaches, we all live by a common societal ethic.
Check Your Understanding
a. There are two approaches to ethics: the absolutist and the relativist.                           ____ True ____ False
b. Absolutists believe that anything goes with regard to ethical decisions or actions. ____ True ____ False
c. C) Relativists believe that the culture or society determines what is good or bad.____ True ____ False
d. Social ethics allow people with diverse ethical beliefs to live together in peace.____ True ____ False

4. From a philosophical perspective, there are several ethical positions found in the United States. Among them are the following:
a. Deontological (That which we know we should do, we must do because it is good.)
b. Utilitarianism (That which produces the best result for the majority is the good thing to do.)
c. Justice (That which results in a fair distribution of good and bad for all is good.)
d. Moral Rights (That which preserves and promotes individual human rights is good.)
e. Christian Ethics (The intention of the doer determines if an action or decision is good.)
Each of these will be discussed separately.
Check Your Understanding
a) There is only one, solid ethical position found in the United States. ____ True ____ False
b) Moral Rights ethics focuses on individual human rights as a basis for determining good and bad. ____ True ____ False
c) Utilitarians focus on the end result of an action. ____ True ____ False

5. a) Deontological ethics—the goodness or badness of a decision/action is based upon the act itself.  The word deontological means duty. Immanuel Kant, the German philosopher discussed earlier, spoke about duty as the basis for all morality. This form of ethics is typically associated with religion. The most common example of deontological ethics is found in the Ten Commandments. In other words, if we know something is wrong, we should never do it—regardless of the circumstances.
For example, one should never steal.  Therefore, under no circumstances, should one steal.
Check Your Understanding
a. Deontology is based upon the concept of duty. ____ True ____ False
b. People who always do what they should do would be considered deontologists. ____ True ____ False
c. Deontologists believe that, if we know that a particular action is wrong, we should never do it unless we believe that it would help more people by doing it just this once.____ True ____ False

6. b) Utilitarian ethics—the goodness or badness of a decision/action is based upon the effect on the majority of people. Proponents of this ethical theory include Jeremy Bentham, John Stuart Mill, and John Locke. You should notice that these are all citizens of the British Empire. That means that they were freed from the power of the Catholic Church earlier than the philosophers on the continent. (Henry VIII saw to that.) As a result, the British developed Empirical philosophy because religion (which is Rationalist) was no longer a threat. Locke’s writings were especially influential in the writing of the Declaration of Independance, the Constitution, and the Bill of Rights—small wonder the United States is more Empiricist in its philosophy!
Utilitarians focus on the results of the action. Among the possible actions we might choose, the utilitarian will choose to do what is best for the group—even if one or more individuals are hurt. This form of ethics is commonly found in corporate business.
For example, even though 350 people will be hurt by the impending lay-off, the corporation and remaining 5500 employees will continue to operate and may thrive.
Check Your Understanding
a. Utilitarians consider the consequence or results of their decisions or actions. ____ True ____ False
b. If you are a Utilitarian, you will do whatever you need to in order to keep from hurting anyone. ____ True ____ False
c. Utilitarians function best in the world of corporate affairs. ____ True ____ False

7. c)  Justice ethics—the goodness or badness of an action is based upon the impartiality and equitability of the decision. If an action is based on the ability of each person to benefit to the greatest degree possible, consistent with the benefits given to other people. In other words, the most disadvantaged should benefit the most from any decision made. Justice ethics is a relatively recent phenomenon. First, one must believe that all people are equal—which did was not commonly believed until the 19th century. Second, the philosophers who use Justice ethics often write about issues of racial equality, feminism, and ecology. These are also relatively recent concerns. People who are involved in social issues and ecological issues are operating most often from a platform of Justice ethics.
For example, Affirmative Action is a good representative of Justice ethics: those who have been discriminated against in the past now receive equitable treatment in hiring.
Check Your Understanding
a. In a large business environment, Justice ethics provides a good criterion for decision-making. ____ True ____ False
b. Justice ethics is not the prevailing ethical theory found in the United States. ____ True ____ False
c. The homeless and disenfranchised would benefit most from decisions made from a Justice perspective. ____ True ____ False

8. d) Moral Rights—the goodness or badness of an action is based upon the idea that individual rights will not be compromised or violated. These rights are not based only on the right to life and safety but also to the right to speak freely, the right to private property, and the right to happiness. John Locke’s writings had a lot to do with the development of Moral Rights ethics. The United States is unique in its strong emphasis on individual rights. There are many nations still struggling with the idea of individual human rights. Because of its focus on individual human rights as the basis for morality, this ethical system does not work well in large, group-oriented environments, in general.  For example, based upon the principle of Moral Rights, individuals have a right to whistle-blow if they believe illegal or unethical actions are occurring in their workplace.
Check Your Understanding
a. People who made decisions based upon Moral Rights will always be concerned  for personal freedoms. ____ True ____ False
b. Moral Rights ethics works well within a corporate environment. ____ True ____ False
c. A person with a strong Moral Rights perspective might have difficulty working within a corporation. ____ True ____ False

9. e) Christian ethics—the goodness or badness of an action is based upon the intention of the individual doing the action. Regardless of the results of an action, as long as the individual intends to do right and does not intend to do wrong, then the action is good. Regardless of their religious beliefs, people might still make decisions based on Christian ethics if they consider the intention of the act more important than the act itself. Obviously, Christian ethics are rooted in the Gospel writings.
For example, if, by denying a potential merger, a manager believes he or she can allay unfounded fears and serious rumor-mongering, then to lie is good.
Check Your Understanding
a. People do not have to be Christians in order to make decisions according to a Christian perspective. ____ True ____ False
b. In order to determine whether a decision or action arises from a Christian perspective, one would have to ask the other person what his or her intention was. ____ True ____ False
c. A person making a decision from a Christian perspective may harm someone and still be ethically good.  ____ True ____ False

10. Within each of us, we may have a bit of absolutism and also relativism in our personal ethical systems. For instance, based upon our religious convictions, we might be more Deontological or Christian (from an ethical perspective) in raising our children.
For instance, we might say to a child, “Don’t you ever lie to me! Lying is wrong.” Yet, when a child breaks a glass, we might also say, “That’s all right; it was an accident. You didn’t mean to break it.”
We might approach our decision making at work with a more utilitarian approach.  We have to keep the goals and objectives of the business in mind when making decisions even when we have to fire someone we like or admire. Or because one department is more desperately in need of additional personnel, we might not allow another department to hire a needed technician at this time.
At the same time, politically, we might favor a Moral Rights approach to legislative decision-making. The issues of Gun Control, Abortion, and Assisted Suicide are kept alive by Moral Rights activists.  
The significant thing is that, just as we approach decision making from many different approaches, so, too, other people may, also, approach decision making from different approaches. We cannot judge other peoples’ actions based upon our own ethical positions.  
So, how do we deal with all these ethical approaches?  We acknowledge them, respect them, and appreciate the different approaches when making decisions and when encountering decisions, which others have made.  We can be less quick to judge others, knowing that there are different ways to approach a decision. Finally, we can assess whether our own decision-making represents the best approach in the situations in which we find ourselves.
a. In the United States, people make decisions and act from a variety of different ethical perspectives. ____ True ____ False
b. As individuals, we might act from different perspectives, depending upon the circumstances. ____ True ____ False
c. If we observe carefully, we can probably tell why someone is doing something or making a particular decision. ____ True ____ False

See attached file for full problem description.

Attached file(s):

Ethics scenario week 3.doc  View File